The language of cardiology, explained

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323 terms

A

Abdominal obesity

Excess fat around the waist, measured as a waist circumference over 40 inches in men or 35 inches in women. This visceral fat releases inflammatory substances that encourage diabetes and heart attack. Losing 5 to 10% of body weight cuts those risks markedly.

Abnormal shunt (hole in the heart)

Abnormal passage for blood between two heart chambers, present from birth. This hole tires the heart and can produce a murmur. Depending on its size it closes on its own, by catheter or by surgery.

ACE inhibitors

Drugs that block the production of angiotensin II, the substance that tightens arteries. They lower blood pressure and protect the heart after a heart attack. Regular blood tests watch kidney function and potassium.

Acute coronary syndrome

Acute coronary syndrome covers a group of serious situations where the blood supply to the heart muscle is suddenly reduced or blocked by a problem in the coronary arteries. It is a medical emergency that turns into a heart attack if it is not treated quickly. The typical symptoms are pain or a sense of pressure in the chest, usually behind the breastbone, that may spread to the arm, the jaw, the neck or the back. Breathlessness, intense fatigue, cold sweats, nausea and a feeling of dread are frequent companions. In some people, particularly women and those with diabetes, the signs can be much quieter. Calling 911 immediately is essential.

Acute pulmonary edema

Acute pulmonary edema is an emergency, usually caused by an exhausted heart, whether after a heart attack, in heart failure or following a very salty meal. Blood backs up and fluid crosses into the lungs, causing sudden breathlessness, a cough with pink froth and a feeling of suffocation. Rapid hospital treatment is essential.

Adrenaline (epinephrine)

Hormone released under stress or exertion; it speeds the heart and raises blood pressure. In an emergency it restarts a stopped heart or treats anaphylactic shock. Sustained excess, though, wears the heart out.

Adventitia

Outer layer of an artery, made of connective tissue and small feeding vessels. It protects the vessel and anchors it to neighboring tissue.

Age and heart risk

Arteries stiffen over the years, which encourages high blood pressure and cholesterol plaque. Past 60, regular blood pressure and cholesterol checks matter. A healthy routine and exercise slow this vascular aging.

Alcohol and heart risk

For your heart, not drinking at all is best: no amount is harmless. Alcohol raises blood pressure and weakens the heart muscle. One heavy weekend is enough to set off a rhythm disturbance. Stopping protects the liver too, and your doctor can help if you find it hard.

Aldosterone

Hormone that pushes the kidney to hold on to salt and water, which raises blood pressure. Aldosterone antagonists block that effect to treat hypertension and heart failure.

Aldosterone antagonists

Diuretics that block the hormone driving water and salt retention. They relieve heart failure and lower blood pressure. A blood test checks potassium at regular intervals.

Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM)

Device that measures blood pressure automatically, day and night, across 24 hours. It separates genuine hypertension from a one-off spike in the office. Treatment is set from the average.

Anastomosis

Suture joining two vessels to restore circulation, as in a coronary bypass. It lets blood go around a narrowing or a diseased stretch. How well the join is made determines how long the flow lasts.

Anemia

Shortage of hemoglobin or of the red cells that carry oxygen. It causes fatigue, breathlessness and pallor. Treating the cause, whether iron deficiency, bleeding or chronic illness, brings the energy back.

Aneurysm

Stretch of artery that balloons outward because the wall has weakened. If it grows too far it can rupture, which is life-threatening. Regular ultrasound or CT decides whether to operate preventively.

Angina

Pain or tightness in the chest on exertion or under stress, a sign the heart is short of oxygen. It eases within minutes with rest or nitroglycerin. If it worsens, get seen without delay.

Angiocardiography

Angiography focused on the chambers of the heart, to assess volumes and valves. It supplements ultrasound when very precise measurements are needed. The risks are those of any iodinated contrast injection.

Angiogenesis

Growth of new capillaries to better feed poorly supplied tissue. In the heart it sometimes improves oxygen delivery around a blocked artery. Researchers are trying to stimulate it in selected patients.

Angiography

X-ray of a vessel made visible by contrast injected through a catheter. It finds a narrowing or an aneurysm and guides the dilation if one is needed. It is done under local anesthesia and takes under an hour.

Angioplasty

Widening of a narrowed artery with a balloon, usually followed by placing a stent. A quick procedure under local anesthesia that restores blood flow.

Angiotensin II

Small hormone that tightens vessels and drives blood pressure up. The drugs known as ACE inhibitors and ARBs block its production or its action to treat hypertension and heart failure.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)

Protein that turns angiotensin I into angiotensin II, the hormone that raises blood pressure. ACE inhibitors block this enzyme and bring the pressure down.

Antagonist

Substance that occupies a cell receptor and cancels the natural effect there, as a beta blocker does against adrenaline. It damps down an excessive response such as a racing heart or clamped vessels.

Anticoagulants

Drugs, commonly called blood thinners, that keep a clot from forming or traveling. They prevent stroke in atrial fibrillation and protect mechanical valves. Exact dosing and lab follow-up keep the bleeding risk small.

Antiplatelet medicines

Drugs that keep platelets from clumping together into a clot. Taken daily after a stent, they prevent a repeat heart attack. Their main risk is bleeding in the digestive tract.

Antithrombotic medicines

Umbrella term covering antiplatelet drugs, anticoagulants and thrombolytics. Their purpose is to prevent or dissolve a clot.

Aorta

Largest artery in the body, taking blood from the left ventricle out to everywhere else. It has to stay supple; high blood pressure and smoking weaken it. Its diameter is monitored to catch an aneurysm early.

Aortic dissection

Tear in the inner wall of the aorta that lets blood carve a false channel. The chest pain is sudden and stabbing. It is a surgical or endovascular emergency.

Arrhythmia

A heart beating too fast, too slow or irregularly. The symptoms run from palpitations to fainting. An ECG, and sometimes a Holter, pins down the cause.

Arterial blood gas

Arterial blood sample measuring oxygen, carbon dioxide and blood pH. It helps judge the severity of a pulmonary embolism or respiratory failure. The draw is done at the wrist under light local anesthesia.

Arterial hypotension

Readings below 90/60 mm Hg at rest. It can follow over-treatment, dehydration or a hormonal disorder. Your doctor checks medications, hydration and heart function.

Arterial wall: the media

The media is the middle layer of an artery wall. It is made mostly of smooth muscle and elastic fibers, which lets it set the artery's diameter, narrowing or widening it, and withstand the pressure of the blood. It is central to circulation and to the control of blood pressure.

Arteries

Vessels that deliver oxygen-rich blood to the organs. They narrow with plaque or widen into an aneurysm. Balanced eating and movement keep them supple.

Arteriography

X-ray of an artery after iodinated contrast, to spot a stenosis or a leak. A stent can be placed in the same session.

Artificial heart

Mechanical pump implanted in whole or in part to replace a heart too weak to work. It keeps circulation going while waiting for a transplant, and in some cases for the long term. The patient carries an external battery and controller.

Artificial intelligence in healthcare

Algorithms that analyze large volumes of medical data to support diagnosis and follow-up. Software can flag an abnormality on an ECG or estimate heart attack risk, for instance. AI assists the physician; it does not replace their judgment.

Atheroma

Plaque of cholesterol and inflammation thickening an artery wall. If it cracks, a clot blocks the vessel in one stroke: that is the heart attack. Controlling LDL keeps it stable.

Atherosclerotic plaque

Deposit of cholesterol, inflammatory cells and calcium in an artery wall. It narrows the vessel and can crack, forming a clot. Controlling LDL, quitting smoking and exercising keep it stable.

Atrial fibrillation

Irregular, fast beating of the atria that can cause palpitations and breathlessness. It raises stroke risk, so an anticoagulant is usually prescribed. Controlling the rate, or restoring a regular rhythm, is the next decision.

Atrial flutter

Fast rhythm, but more regular than fibrillation, with the atria beating around 300 times a minute. It can cause palpitations and breathlessness. Catheter ablation or medication puts an end to it.

Atypical heart attack signs

Extreme fatigue, nausea, back or jaw pain, particularly in women, people with diabetes and older adults. They sometimes delay the emergency call. Knowing them saves lives.

Auscultation

Listening to the sounds of the heart through a stethoscope: the lub-dub, murmurs or rubs. This simple move already catches a great deal.

Automated external defibrillator (AED)

Portable unit that reads the rhythm and delivers a shock if one is needed. Found in public buildings, it talks the bystander through it: open it, place the pads, press the shock button. Used quickly, it saves lives.

Automated symptom monitoring

App-based system that asks you each day about pain, breathlessness, weight and blood pressure. If a value leaves the set range, an alert goes to the clinician or the patient. It allows a response before hospitalization becomes necessary.

B

Beta blockers

Drugs that slow the heart and lower blood pressure by blocking the effect of adrenaline. They relieve angina, prevent repeat heart attacks and treat certain arrhythmias. Taking them consistently and watching your heart rate are both part of the deal.

Beta-adrenergic receptor

Protein on the heart and arteries activated by adrenaline; beta blockers occupy it to bring heart rate and blood pressure down.

Biomarker

Substance measured in the blood to assess an organ's condition; troponin, for instance, shows damage to the heart. Biomarkers support a diagnosis or track whether a treatment is working. Reading them always depends on the clinical picture.

Blood flow

Volume of blood moving through a vessel or an organ each minute. It depends on cardiac output and on how wide the arteries are.

Blood pressure

Force the blood exerts on the artery wall, given in mm Hg as systolic over diastolic. Good pressure is below 140/90 in the office and 135/85 at home. It is controlled with less salt, exercise and medication where needed.

Blood pressure Holter monitor

Automatic cuff that measures blood pressure every 20 minutes across 24 hours. It confirms or rules out the high readings seen in the office, the white-coat effect, and shows whether treatment is working. The results guide the dose.

Blood pressure medicines

Several families of drugs that bring blood pressure below 140/90 mm Hg. Well controlled, blood pressure protects brain, kidneys and heart. They work best alongside changes in daily life.

Blood pressure monitoring

Frequent measurement of blood pressure at home or in the office to fine-tune medication. The target on home readings is below 135/85 mm Hg. Writing the numbers in a notebook or an app makes them easier to read.

Blood sugar

Glucose level in the blood, ideally 70 to 110 mg/dL fasting. Regular checks are essential in diabetes to avoid cardiac complications.

Blood tests

Blood draws measuring glucose, cholesterol, troponin, INR and more. They serve to make a diagnosis, follow a treatment or catch a risk factor early.

Body mass index (BMI)

Weight divided by height squared; normal between 18.5 and 24.9. Above 25, the risk of diabetes and high blood pressure climbs. A BMI under 18.5 sometimes signals undernutrition worth correcting.

Bradycardia

Heart rate under 50 beats a minute at rest. Athletes often tolerate it well, but it can bring fatigue or dizziness when blood flow drops too low. A pacemaker is considered when the symptoms interfere.

Building physical activity back up

Increase in steps: start with 10 minutes of walking and add 5 minutes each week until you reach 30 minutes a day. This keeps fatigue and injury risk low. A heart rate monitor helps you stay in the recommended zone.

Bundle branch block

Delay in the electrical current passing down one of the heart's conduction branches, right or left. It may mean nothing or may reveal underlying heart disease; an ECG detects it. Your cardiologist decides between simple follow-up and treatment.

Bundle of His

Fiber carrying the electrical impulse from the atria down to the ventricles. Complete block of it usually calls for a pacemaker.

C

C-reactive protein (CRP)

Blood marker of inflammation: the higher it is, the more inflammation there is in the vessels. A high CRP predicts increased cardiovascular risk. Losing weight, quitting smoking and treating cholesterol bring it down.

Calcium channel blockers

Drugs that relax the muscle in vessel walls and slow the heart. Used for high blood pressure, angina and certain arrhythmias.

Cancer and heart health

Some chemotherapy and radiation weakens the heart muscle or encourages clots. Cardiac follow-up with ECG and ultrasound is usually scheduled before, during and after cancer treatment. Tailored exercise limits these effects.

Capillaries

Tiny vessels, finer than a hair, where oxygen, nutrients and waste pass between blood and tissue. How well they work depends on blood pressure and blood sugar being under control.

Cardiac intensive care unit

Hospital unit dedicated to cardiac emergencies: heart attack, serious arrhythmias, cardiogenic shock. Patients are connected around the clock to rhythm and pressure monitors, with a team on hand at all times.

Cardiac MRI

Magnetic resonance imaging showing the heart's anatomy, its perfusion and its scars, with no X-rays. The reference test for cardiomyopathies.

Cardiac output

Amount of blood the heart pumps each minute, about five liters at rest in an adult. If it falls, organs get too little oxygen and fatigue and breathlessness follow. Medications or support devices can raise it.

Cardiac rehabilitation

Supervised program, usually three months, starting after a heart attack, surgery or angioplasty. It combines monitored exercise, nutrition education and psychological support so confidence and capacity come back. Taking part cuts the risk of another cardiac event by 20 to 30%.

Cardiac relaxation techniques

Methods such as deep breathing, heart coherence or guided meditation. They gently lower blood pressure and heart rate. Ten minutes twice a day is already enough to reduce stress.

Cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT)

Special pacemaker that sends a coordinated signal to both ventricles when they no longer beat together. It improves cardiac output and eases the symptoms of severe heart failure. The benefit shows after three to six months.

Cardiac short-stay unit

Observation unit for under 24 hours for chest pain, faintness or palpitations; it allows a quick decision between admission and going home.

Cardiac stress test

Test on a treadmill or bike with continuous ECG while the workload rises. It reveals poor blood supply to the heart or measures physical capacity. It is stopped at once if abnormal pain or a drop in blood pressure appears.

Cardiac support group (Mended Hearts)

Local chapters where people who have had a heart attack or heart surgery meet others who have been through it, often visiting patients in the hospital. They keep the gains from rehabilitation alive once the supervised program ends.

Cardiac tests

Tests that assess the structure and function of the heart: ECG, echocardiogram, stress test, CT, MRI or coronary angiogram. Your doctor picks according to symptoms and history. Most are painless and take under an hour.

Cardiac treatments

Covers medications such as statins, beta blockers and ACE inhibitors, catheter procedures such as stents and transcatheter valves, and surgery such as bypass and valve replacement. The choice depends on the diagnosis, the severity and the risk factors. Regular follow-up adjusts the therapy and limits side effects.

Cardio-oncology

Field that monitors and treats the cardiac effects of chemotherapy and immunotherapy. It lets cancer treatment continue without putting the heart at risk.

Cardiology appointment

Visit with a cardiologist covering a conversation, a physical exam and usually an ECG. It serves to diagnose, to check a treatment or to set up a deeper test. Bring your medication list and your previous reports.

Cardiology telehealth visit

Video consultation used for routine follow-up, a second opinion or reviewing test results remotely. All it takes is a phone or computer with a camera and a stable connection. It supplements in-person visits rather than replacing them.

Cardiometabolic

Term tying the heart to metabolism: excess weight, diabetes and cholesterol all damage arteries. Keeping blood sugar, BMI and blood pressure in range prevents heart attack and stroke.

Cardiomyocyte

Muscle cell of the heart, the one that contracts and pushes blood forward. It needs oxygen without pause; if an artery blocks, it dies. That is why a heart attack has to be treated fast.

Cardiomyopathy

Disease of the heart muscle, which may be enlarged, thickened or stiff. Symptoms run from fatigue to severe heart failure. Medications, and sometimes a defibrillator or a transplant, improve survival.

Cardiopulmonary bypass

Heart-lung machine that takes over circulation and oxygenation during certain cardiac operations. Blood leaves the body, is oxygenated and returns, letting the surgeon work on a still heart.

Cardiovascular risk factors

Habits or conditions that raise the odds of a heart attack or stroke: smoking, high blood pressure, diabetes, cholesterol, excess weight, inactivity. The more of them stack up, the steeper the risk. Correcting them cuts events sharply.

Catecholamines

Family of hormones, adrenaline and noradrenaline, that speed the heart and raise blood pressure under stress or exertion. A prolonged excess tires the heart muscle, which is exactly why managing stress counts.

Catheter

Thin tube slid into a vein or artery to inject contrast, measure pressure or place a stent. It is done under local anesthesia with continuous monitoring.

Catheter ablation

Procedure that threads a catheter to the heart and destroys the spot firing off the abnormal rhythm. It often cures the targeted tachycardia or fibrillation for good.

CHA₂DS₂-VASc score

Tool that estimates stroke risk in patients with atrial fibrillation, to decide on an anticoagulant.

Chest discomfort after a stent

Pulling or pressure in the chest after a stent is placed, usually temporary. It fades within a few days, helped by a mild painkiller. If the pain builds or returns with exertion, call your cardiologist.

Cholesterol

Fat the cells cannot do without, carried in the blood as LDL (bad) and HDL (good). High LDL builds plaque in the arteries; diet, exercise and statins bring it down.

Cholesterol-lowering diet

Eating low in saturated fat, meaning butter and cured meat, and high in fiber, vegetables, oily fish and olive oil. It lowers LDL and sometimes raises HDL. Paired with statins, it reduces the number of plaques.

Chronic cor pulmonale

Failure of the right heart caused by long-standing lung disease such as COPD. It brings swelling, breathlessness and fatigue.

Chronic inflammatory disease and the heart

Conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis and psoriasis release substances that inflame the arteries too. They roughly double the risk of a heart attack. Regular cardiac follow-up is therefore advised.

Ciclosporin

Immunosuppressant that prevents transplant rejection but can raise blood pressure and cholesterol. It requires regular lab monitoring.

Circulatory collapse

Sudden drop in blood pressure bringing dizziness, sweating and sometimes loss of consciousness. It is an emergency: lay the person flat and call 911.

Coagulation

Cascade of plasma proteins that builds a fibrin clot and stops bleeding. Essential, and dangerous when it blocks an artery.

Cognitive behavioral therapy after a heart attack

After a heart attack, anxiety, depression, fear of a recurrence and a loss of self-confidence are all common. Cognitive behavioral therapy helps patients take back control of their thoughts and emotions, reduce stress and find their balance again. It rests on structured sessions with a psychologist or psychiatrist. The patient learns to identify negative or unrealistic thoughts, replace them with more accurate ones, and build positive behaviors to get past the fear, resume physical activity and settle into a calmer rhythm of life.

Collateral circulation

Small vessels that develop around a blocked artery to feed the tissue anyway. Regular exercise encourages this backup supply.

Conduction

The path electricity takes through the heart to trigger each beat. If that network slows or blocks, the rhythm turns too slow or irregular. An ECG or a Holter finds the fault.

Congenital heart defects

Malformations of the heart present from birth: a hole, a narrow valve, a missing vessel. Some correct themselves, others need surgery or a catheter. Lifelong follow-up is often required even after repair.

Connected ambulatory blood pressure monitor

Records blood pressure over 24 hours and sends the values by Bluetooth or cellular data. It distinguishes sustained hypertension from the white-coat effect reliably.

Connected blood pressure monitor

Electronic cuff that measures blood pressure and sends the values straight to a phone or a medical record. It makes tuning blood pressure medication easier.

Connected health

Devices, apps and platforms that collect and share your health data in real time. They make tracking measurements and talking to clinicians easier. More responsiveness, fewer unnecessary trips.

Connected health after a heart attack

After a heart attack, connected health covers every digital tool, from apps to wearables to remote monitoring, that supports the patient through recovery and the prevention of another event. It makes follow-up more regular, more personal and more reassuring, alongside conventional medical care.

COPD and the heart

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, usually caused by smoking, lowers blood oxygen and strains the right heart. It raises the risk of arrhythmia and heart failure. Quitting smoking and sticking with inhaled treatment protect the heart too.

Coronary angiogram (cardiac catheterization)

Test that injects iodinated contrast into the heart arteries to reveal any narrowing. Done under local anesthesia, it takes about 20 minutes. If an artery is blocked, a stent can go in during the same session.

Coronary arteries

Arteries that wrap the heart like a crown and bring it oxygen. When they block, the heart muscle suffers: that is angina, or a heart attack. Protecting them takes daily habits and, where needed, treatment.

Coronary artery bypass graft

Surgery that uses a harvested vein or artery to connect the aorta to the coronary artery beyond the blockage. It restores blood supply to the heart.

Coronary artery disease

Umbrella term for disease of the coronary arteries, from angina to heart attack. It is driven by plaque and the familiar risk factors.

Coronary calcium score

Measurement from the coronary CT scan giving the amount of calcium in the heart arteries. A high score signals advanced atherosclerosis and calls for more aggressive treatment. The test needs no injection and no exertion.

Coronary CT scan

The coronary CT scan is an imaging test that uses X-rays to visualize the coronary arteries, the vessels supplying blood to the heart. It detects cholesterol plaque, measures coronary calcium and looks for the narrowing behind angina or a heart attack.

Coronary flow reserve

The coronary arteries' capacity to increase flow under exertion. A low reserve indicates a risk of ischemia.

Coronary spasm

Sudden clamping of a heart artery that abruptly cuts blood flow. It causes pain resembling angina, often at night or on waking. Nitrates and calcium channel blockers prevent these episodes.

Counseling after a heart attack

Sessions with a professional to work through the fear, sadness and stress that follow the event. They improve sleep, the will to move and adherence to medication. Group and online formats exist too.

Cyanosis

Bluish tint to the lips or fingers caused by blood low in oxygen. It can signal a heart malformation, a pulmonary embolism or severe heart failure. It needs urgent assessment to find the cause.

Cyanotic heart disease

Congenital heart defect that mixes oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, giving the skin a bluish cast. It is usually corrected by pediatric surgery.

Cycling after a heart attack

Gentle endurance activity you can dose finely with the gears; start on flat ground for 15 minutes a day. A helmet and a heart rate monitor add safety. Build the distance up gradually, always watching the heart rate.

D

D-dimer

Fibrin fragments that show up in the blood when a clot forms and then breaks down. A high level points toward a deep vein thrombosis or a pulmonary embolism. Imaging confirms the diagnosis.

DASH diet

Eating pattern built on fruit, vegetables, low-fat dairy and little salt, designed to bring blood pressure down. It supplies plenty of potassium, calcium and magnesium, all protective minerals. Results appear within two to four weeks.

Denial of symptoms

The habit of minimizing or ignoring warning signs such as chest pain or breathlessness. That lost time makes heart attacks and strokes worse. Recognizing symptoms early is what gets 911 called in time.

Depression after a heart attack

Lasting sadness, loss of interest and exhaustion, affecting up to one patient in five after a heart attack. It undermines adherence and stalls rehabilitation. Psychological support and, if needed, antidepressant treatment are recommended.

Diabetes and coronary artery disease

High blood sugar damages arteries and speeds up plaque formation. People with diabetes carry two to three times the risk of a heart attack. Good control of blood sugar and blood lipids is therefore essential.

Diastole

The phase where the heart relaxes and fills with blood after each beat. A diastole cut short by a racing heart reduces filling and can cause breathlessness. Beta blockers, or simply calming down, lengthen it again.

Dietary supplements for the heart

Supplements such as omega-3s, coenzyme Q10 or plant sterols intended to support heart health. They do not replace prescribed treatment but may modestly lower triglycerides or fatigue. Always ask your doctor before starting one.

Digital adherence tracking

Real-time record of medication doses through an app or a connected pill box. The system prompts the patient, and sometimes the care team, when a dose is missed. It makes treatment more consistent.

Digital angiography

Vessel X-ray with iodinated contrast captured by digital detectors. It gives high-resolution images at a reduced radiation dose.

Digital care pathway

Organizing care through a secure platform where physicians, nurses and patient share tests and appointments. It avoids duplication and speeds up decisions. It also makes the treatment plan easier for the patient to follow.

Digital companion

A digital companion is a mobile app that supports people in managing their health day to day. It offers personalized follow-up, plain-language content and reminders matched to each person's medical situation. In the case of Noctua Care, it helps people with cardiovascular disease, and those recovering from a heart attack, hold on to heart-healthy habits for good.

Digital follow-up after a heart attack

After a heart attack, digital follow-up keeps you connected to your care team, makes your own condition easier to understand and helps prevent another event. Through apps, wearables and remote monitoring platforms, patients are supported day to day through their recovery.

Digital health record

Single digital notebook holding allergies, vaccinations, test results and treatments. Reachable from a phone or a computer, it keeps things from being forgotten during appointments. Some portals even store images and clinical letters.

Digital heart diary

App where you record blood pressure, pulse, weight and symptoms each day. The data is shared with your doctor and helps adjust treatment. A clear graph makes the progress visible.

Digoxin

Older medication that strengthens the heart's contraction and slows certain arrhythmias. Used mainly in heart failure or atrial fibrillation when other drugs are not enough. Regular blood tests keep the dose from running high.

Dissecting aneurysm

Tear inside the aorta creating two blood channels, with chest pain that arrives all at once. It is a surgical or endovascular emergency.

Diuretics

Drugs that make the kidneys flush out water and salt, lowering blood pressure and swelling. Potassium has to be monitored.

Doppler ultrasound

Test using ultrasound to measure the speed and direction of blood in the vessels. It finds a narrowing, a leak or a clot with no injection at all. Quick and painless, it often drives the treatment decision.

Dual-chamber pacemaker

Pacemaker with two leads, one in the atrium and one in the ventricle, reproducing a natural rhythm. It improves the coordination between them and exercise tolerance.

Dyspnea (breathlessness)

The feeling of not getting enough air, at rest or on exertion. It can reveal heart failure, a pulmonary embolism or anemia. Describing when it happens helps your doctor find the cause.

E

Echocardiogram

Ultrasound showing the chambers, the valves and the pumping of the heart in real time. It is the reference test for diagnosing heart failure or a valve problem. No X-rays, no pain, about 20 minutes.

Echogenicity

How strongly a tissue reflects ultrasound. Highly echogenic tissue looks white, fluid looks black. That difference is what separates muscle, fat and calcium on the screen.

Ectopic beats

Extra heartbeats felt as a skip or a thump in the chest. Usually harmless, they deserve review if they become frequent or come with faintness. Sometimes cutting back on coffee or stress is enough.

Ejection fraction

Percentage of blood the ventricle pushes out with each contraction; 50% or more is normal. This key measurement from the echocardiogram describes the heart's strength. A low fraction indicates systolic heart failure.

Electrical shock (defibrillation)

Jolt delivered across the chest or by an implanted defibrillator to reset the heart into normal rhythm. The earlier it lands in ventricular fibrillation, the more lives it saves.

Electrocardiogram (ECG)

The ECG records the heart's electrical activity through electrodes stuck to the skin. It detects an arrhythmia, a struggling heart muscle or the effects of a drug. Quick, painless, and available in the office as well as the hospital.

Embolism

Blockage of an artery by an embolus; the commonest example is pulmonary embolism. Breathlessness and chest pain warrant an emergency call. Anticoagulant treatment starts at once.

Embolus

Fragment of clot, fat or air that breaks loose and travels in the bloodstream. If it blocks an artery it causes a pulmonary, cerebral or renal embolism. Preventing them means anticoagulation where it is indicated.

End-diastolic volume

Volume of blood sitting in a ventricle just before it contracts. Too high suggests an enlarged heart; too low points to dehydration or hypovolemia.

Endarterectomy

Surgery that scrapes the plaque out of a blocked artery, most often the carotid. It restores blood flow and lowers stroke risk. The stay is short and the operation is done under general or regional anesthesia.

Endocarditis

Infection of the inner lining of the heart or its valves, often traced to mouth bacteria. Fever and a new murmur are typical; treatment is a long antibiotic course, sometimes surgery.

Endocardium

Thin membrane lining the inside of the heart chambers and the valves. Infection of this layer, endocarditis, damages valves and can release emboli. Good dental hygiene lowers that risk.

Endogenous catecholamines

Adrenaline and noradrenaline released under stress; they push up heart rate and blood pressure. Chronic excess wears the cardiovascular system down.

Endothelium

Layer of cells lining the inner face of every blood vessel. It makes substances that widen arteries and keep clots from forming. Smoking, diabetes and high cholesterol all disturb that work.

Endurance training after a heart attack

Gentle sessions on a bike or treadmill run by the rehabilitation team. They strengthen the heart, lower cholesterol and lift the mood. The program is set from each patient's own exercise test.

Exercise after a heart attack

Regular, supervised physical activity begun after an exercise test. Brisk walking, cycling and swimming come first. It lowers cholesterol and rebuilds confidence.

Exercise and the risk of another event

Graded, supervised training reduces repeat events, while an intense unprepared effort can trigger one. The target is 150 minutes of moderate endurance work a week. Your cardiologist sets the heart rate zone not to exceed.

Exercise program after a heart attack

Exercise plan signed off by your cardiologist: warm-up, 20 to 30 minutes of endurance work, stretching. It strengthens the heart, lifts the mood and lowers the risk of another event. Sessions are set from the initial exercise test.

Exercise stress test

Stress test run in a medical setting to measure cardiac capacity and exercise tolerance. ECG, blood pressure and symptoms are watched throughout.

F

Familial hypercholesterolemia

Genetic disorder that drives bad LDL cholesterol very high from an early age. Untreated, a heart attack can arrive before 40. High-dose statins and sometimes LDL apheresis are required.

Family history of heart disease

Heart attack or sudden death that struck a close relative early in life. That inherited ground doubles your own risk. Closer monitoring and firmer prevention are the answer.

Family support after a heart attack

The people close to you help with daily tasks, with medications and with new habits. Their presence steadies the mood and lowers the anxiety that follows the event, which speeds recovery. Education sessions teach them what to do if chest pain or faintness returns.

Fatigue after a heart attack

Exhaustion is common in the weeks after discharge, tied to the heart muscle healing and to the medication. Rest, rehabilitation and balanced eating bring the energy back sooner. It normally eases within one to three months.

Fibrates

Drugs that mainly lower triglycerides and can nudge the good HDL cholesterol up. They supplement or replace statins when those are not enough or not tolerated. Liver enzymes should be monitored.

Fibrin

Protein that forms a tough mesh and traps blood cells, building the clot that seals a wound. It is essential to normal clotting, but too much fibrin inside an artery leads to a heart attack or a stroke.

Fibrinolysis

Natural or drug-driven process that breaks down fibrin and shrinks the clot. The body switches this system on to limit a blockage, and a thrombolytic treatment speeds it up.

Fibrinolytic / thrombolytic

Drug given urgently to dissolve a fresh clot, as in ischemic stroke or a STEMI heart attack. It cuts fibrin into soluble fragments and restores circulation. It only works if injected very soon after the first symptoms.

Fibrinolytics

Drugs such as t-PA or streptokinase that dissolve the fibrin in a fresh clot. Used urgently when angioplasty is not available.

Foods to limit after a heart attack

Cured meats, fried food, packaged pastries and heavily salted meals strain the heart and damage arteries. Limiting them makes blood pressure and cholesterol easier to control. Cooking at home, with less fat and less salt, is the better answer.

Framingham risk score

Calculation estimating your risk of a heart attack over 10 years from age, sex, blood pressure, cholesterol, smoking and diabetes. It guides the decision on whether to start preventive treatment.

G

Gene

Fragment of DNA carrying the instructions for making a protein. Certain genes predispose to high cholesterol or high blood pressure, which explains a family risk.

Generic medicine

Strictly equivalent copy of an original medication, sold under the name of the molecule. Effectiveness and safety are identical, and the price is usually lower.

Glucose

Simple sugar that supplies energy to the cells and circulates in the blood. Too much glucose damages arteries and drives atherosclerosis.

Gut microbiome and the heart

Intestinal bacteria produce substances that influence inflammation in the arteries. A fiber-rich diet encourages a protective microbiome.

H

HDL (good cholesterol)

Particles that carry excess cholesterol out of the arteries back to the liver for disposal. A high HDL protects against heart attack. Exercise and plant fats such as olive oil and nuts raise it.

Health notification

Message sent to a phone or watch to prompt a medication or an exercise session. Regular prompts improve adherence and make exercise more consistent.

Heart attack

A heart attack, or myocardial infarction, is caused by the sudden blockage of a coronary artery, cutting part of the heart muscle off from oxygen. The chest pain lasts more than 20 minutes and may come with sweating, nausea or breathlessness; call 911 immediately so the artery can be reopened with emergency angioplasty and the damage held down. Long-term treatment with aspirin, a statin, a beta blocker and an ACE inhibitor, alongside quitting smoking, regular exercise and balanced eating, sharply lowers the risk of another one.

Heart disease prevention

Everything that prevents a first or a repeat heart problem: quitting smoking, moving 150 minutes a week, eating well, controlling blood pressure, diabetes and cholesterol. Regular checkups catch risk factors early. Following these measures removes at least half of preventable heart attacks.

Heart failure

A heart no longer pumping enough to meet the body's needs. The symptoms are breathlessness, swollen ankles and fatigue. Diuretics, ACE inhibitors and beta blockers relieve it and extend life.

Heart muscle cramp

A teaching image for angina pain: the heart muscle cramps because it is short of oxygen. It signals a temporary shortfall in blood supply.

Heart rate

Number of beats per minute, generally 60 to 80 at rest in an adult. It rises with exertion or stress and slows during sleep. A steady, unhurried pulse points to good cardiovascular condition.

Heart rate variability

The small irregularities in the interval between beats, a sign of good nervous control of the heart. Low variability is associated with higher cardiovascular risk.

Heart transplant

Replacement of a failing heart with a donor heart. It improves survival greatly but requires immunosuppressants for life.

Heart-healthy eating

A plate built on vegetables, fruit, whole grains, fish and olive oil. This pattern lowers bad cholesterol and inflammation. Paired with exercise, it is the strongest prevention there is.

Heart-lung machine

Device used in the operating room that temporarily replaces the work of the heart and lungs. It draws blood out, oxygenates it and returns it, letting the surgeon work on a still heart. Some cardiac operations would be impossible without it.

Hematoma

Pocket of blood under the skin or inside an organ after a knock or a puncture. It usually resolves on its own; watch it if it grows or becomes painful.

Hemoglobin

Pigment in red blood cells that binds oxygen. A drop causes fatigue, pallor and breathlessness, which is anemia.

Hemorrhage

Internal or external loss of blood, which can lead to shock. The bleeding has to be stopped, and a transfusion is sometimes needed.

Hemostasis

The set of reactions that stops bleeding: vessel narrowing, platelet clumping and coagulation. Antithrombotic drugs deliberately tune this cascade.

Heparin

Fast-acting injectable anticoagulant that prevents a clot from forming. Used to prevent deep vein thrombosis or during an angioplasty.

High blood pressure

Blood pressure persistently above 140/90 mm Hg. Untreated, it wears out the heart and kidneys and invites stroke and heart attack. Medication, weight loss and less salt bring it down.

High-fiber foods

Beans, vegetables, fruit and whole grain bread capture some of the cholesterol and smooth out blood sugar. They keep you full longer and feed the gut flora. Aiming for 25 g of fiber a day is good for the heart.

High-sensitivity troponin

Blood test that picks up very small amounts of cardiac injury. A raised result confirms a heart attack even a minor one.

Holter monitor

Light recorder that logs the heart's rhythm over 24 to 48 hours. It catches passing arrhythmias invisible on a single ECG. Noting your symptoms lets them be matched to the tracing.

Home blood pressure monitor

Electronic cuff for measuring your own blood pressure at home. Two readings morning and evening over three days give a reliable average. Those numbers help your doctor adjust treatment.

Hyperlipidemia

Overall excess of fats, both cholesterol and triglycerides, in the blood. It accelerates atherosclerosis. Diet, activity and lipid-lowering drugs correct it.

Hyperlipoproteinemia

Excess of lipoproteins such as LDL and VLDL in the blood. It sharply raises the risk of plaque; statins and diet are indicated.

Hyperoxia / hypoxia

Blood oxygen too high (hyperoxia) or too low (hypoxia). Chronic hypoxia wears the heart down; hyperoxia can blunt the drive to breathe.

Hypertriglyceridemia

Triglyceride level above 150 mg/dL. It raises the risk of pancreatitis and of cardiovascular disease. Cutting fast sugars and alcohol, plus fibrates if needed, brings it back to normal.

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

Abnormal thickening of the heart muscle that obstructs blood flow. It causes breathlessness and carries a risk of sudden death; depending on severity the answer is medication, septal ablation or an implanted defibrillator.

Hypothyroidism and the heart

An underactive thyroid slows the pulse, raises cholesterol and can lift diastolic pressure slightly. Thyroid hormone treatment restores a normal heart rate and improves the lipid profile.

Hypovolemia

Fall in blood volume, often from dehydration or bleeding. It causes low blood pressure, thirst and sometimes shock. Rehydration or transfusion restores the pressure.

I

Imaging

Umbrella term covering X-ray, ultrasound, CT, MRI and nuclear scanning. These techniques show the structure or the function of the heart and vessels. The choice depends on the clinical question and on contraindications.

Immunosuppressants

Drugs that lower immune defenses to prevent rejection after a transplant or to treat an autoimmune disease. They raise infection risk and require regular lab monitoring.

Implantable cardiac monitor

Another name for the implantable loop recorder; it captures rare or very short rhythm disturbances. It reports to the clinic by remote transmission.

Implantable defibrillator (ICD)

Small device placed under the skin that watches the heart without pause. If it detects a dangerous arrhythmia it sends a shock to restore normal rhythm. It is indicated in certain forms of heart failure and after a resuscitated cardiac arrest.

Implantable loop recorder

Miniature recorder placed under the skin to watch the heart rhythm for up to three years. Useful for unexplained fainting.

Inhibitors

Drugs that block one specific biological reaction, at a receptor or an enzyme. In cardiology they lower blood pressure (ACE inhibitors) or slow arrhythmias (calcium channel blockers).

Insulin

Pancreatic hormone that moves glucose into the cells and so lowers blood sugar. People with type 1 diabetes need it for life; those with type 2 move to it when tablets no longer suffice.

International Normalized Ratio (INR)

Blood value measuring the effect of oral anticoagulants of the warfarin type. A target INR between 2 and 3 protects against clots without causing excessive bleeding. The dose is adjusted against this number.

Intima

Innermost layer of an artery, where plaque begins. A healthy intima is smooth; smoking and high LDL cholesterol damage it.

K

Kidney disease and the heart

Kidneys that are poorly supplied or damaged hold on to salt and water, raising blood pressure and the heart's workload. Nephrology follow-up and tight blood pressure control protect both organs.

L

LDL (bad cholesterol)

Particles that carry cholesterol out to the organs and can deposit it in the artery wall. The higher the level, the higher the risk of a heart attack. Statins and balanced eating bring it down.

Leadless pacemaker

Miniature pacemaker implanted straight into the ventricle, with no wire. That lowers the risk of infection and of lead problems.

Life expectancy after a heart attack

The years a patient can expect after a first heart attack. They improve markedly with quitting smoking, the right medications and cardiac rehabilitation. Regular follow-up catches any new risk factor early.

Lipids

General term for fats and fatty substances such as cholesterol and triglycerides. Lipids are essential for making hormones and cell membranes. An excess in the blood, though, encourages plaque.

Lipoprotein(a)

Genetically set blood lipid, strongly plaque-forming and barely responsive to diet. Testing is recommended when heart attacks have struck early in the family.

Lipoproteins

Microscopic packages of fat and protein that carry lipids through the blood. HDL takes cholesterol out of the arteries; LDL puts it in. The balance between the two decides vascular health.

Long QT

Prolonged electrical interval on the ECG that predisposes to torsades de pointes and sudden death. Medications and electrolytes need close watching.

Long-term smoking

Regular tobacco use, the leading preventable cause of heart attack, stroke and peripheral artery disease. Smoking narrows the arteries, raises pressure and makes blood clot more readily. Quitting completely lowers the risk within the first weeks.

Low blood pressure

Readings low enough to cause dizziness or fatigue. Often harmless in young people, it deserves assessment if it brings repeated faintness. Drinking more water and standing up slowly is usually enough.

Low-molecular-weight heparin

Fractionated heparin with a steadier effect, injected under the skin. It needs fewer blood tests than standard heparin.

Low-salt diet

The target is under 6 g of salt a day, about a teaspoon. It helps control blood pressure and reduce swelling in heart failure. Reading labels and cooking at home are the strongest tools for getting there.

M

Managing anger after a heart attack

Learning techniques such as deep breathing and pausing before reacting, to avoid the blood pressure spikes irritation brings. Less anger means less risk of new cardiac stress peaks.

Managing emotions after a heart attack

Naming the anxiety, fear or sadness and using simple tools to channel it: writing, talking, mindfulness. Regulating emotions well improves sleep and the will to stay with treatment.

Maximal exercise test

The maximal exercise test is a test done under medical supervision to assess how the heart works during intense physical effort. It detects cardiac abnormalities, measures endurance capacity and tailors follow-up or cardiac rehabilitation.

Maximum heart rate

Rough figure calculated as 220 minus your age; it serves as a reference for setting exercise intensity. In cardiac training the advice is to stay under 70% of it unless your doctor says otherwise.

Mean arterial pressure (MAP)

Average pressure perfusing the organs, approximated as (systolic + 2 × diastolic) divided by 3. A target of 65 mm Hg or above is used in intensive care to ensure adequate perfusion.

Medication adherence

How reliably you take your medications at the right times and the right doses. Good adherence halves the risk of another cardiac event. Phone apps, pill organizers and regular appointments all make it easier.

Medication follow-up after a heart attack

Regular checks of tolerance through blood tests and of how well the medications are working, through blood pressure and cholesterol. Doses are adjusted in the office or remotely. This follow-up lowers the risk of a second heart attack.

Medication reminders

Alerts from an app, a text message or a lighted pill box so a dose is not missed. They improve adherence and prevent avoidable hospital stays. The times can be set around your own routine.

Mediterranean diet

Traditional cooking of southern Europe: olive oil, fish, vegetables, legumes, nuts and little red meat. It lowers inflammation and cuts heart attack risk by nearly 30%. Varied, flavorful recipes make it easy to stay with.

Metabolic syndrome

Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of factors that together raise the risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes. It is diagnosed when several abnormalities are present at once: a large waist, high blood sugar, high blood pressure, excess triglycerides and low good cholesterol. The cluster fuels inflammation and speeds up damage to the arteries. It usually traces back to unbalanced eating, inactivity and excess weight. Adapting daily habits can reverse its course and protect the heart.

Myocardial fibrosis

Replacement of heart muscle by stiff fibrous tissue after ischemia or inflammation. The heart loses elasticity, which encourages heart failure.

Myocardial infarction

Sudden blockage of a heart artery that starves part of the muscle of oxygen; the pain lasts more than 20 minutes, often with sweating or nausea. Call 911 immediately so the artery can be reopened by angioplasty and the damage limited. Long-term treatment with aspirin, a beta blocker and a statin, together with a change in daily habits, prevents a repeat.

Myocardial perfusion scan

Functional imaging dedicated to the heart; it shows which parts of the muscle receive less blood under exertion or at rest. It grades the severity of angina or checks whether a bypass is working. The patient walks on a treadmill or is given a drug that speeds the heart.

Myocarditis

Inflammation of the heart muscle, often viral. It causes pain, fatigue and arrhythmias; rest and anti-inflammatory treatment are needed.

N

Nitroglycerin

Spray or tablet dissolved under the tongue that rapidly widens the heart's arteries and relieves angina pain. If the pain persists after two doses five minutes apart, call 911.

Non-invasive ventilation

Breathing support through a mask delivering air under pressure, with no breathing tube. It helps in pulmonary edema and in a flare-up of COPD.

Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)

Catecholamine that raises blood pressure and heart rate; it is infused as a vasopressor in intensive care. At high doses it can starve the body's periphery of blood.

Nuclear scan (scintigraphy)

Functional imaging where a weakly radioactive tracer is injected and taken up by the organ being studied. The camera maps where it goes, revealing poorly supplied areas or tumors. Exposure is low and controlled.

Nutrition after a heart attack

Diet low in salt and saturated fat, rich in vegetables, fruit and oily fish. It steadies blood pressure, cholesterol and weight. A dietitian helps tailor it to your life.

O

Open-heart surgery

Operation where the surgeon opens the heart chambers to repair a valve or close a hole. A heart-lung machine handles circulation and oxygen throughout. Convalescence usually runs one to three weeks.

Orthostatic hypotension

Drop of at least 20 mm Hg in systolic pressure on standing, sometimes with lightheadedness. Common in older people and on diuretics. Standing up gradually and wearing compression stockings help prevent it.

Overweight, obesity and the heart

Every extra pound raises blood pressure and bad cholesterol and makes the heart work harder. Excess weight also encourages sleep apnea and heart failure. Gradual weight loss and 150 minutes of activity a week improve heart health.

Oxygen saturation (SpO₂)

Percentage of hemoglobin carrying oxygen, measured at the fingertip. It should stay at 95% or above in a healthy person at rest.

P

Pacemaker

Small device implanted under the collarbone that sends an electrical impulse when the heart beats too slowly. It removes dizziness and fainting and returns a normal, active life. Checks are every 6 to 12 months.

Patent foramen ovale

Small opening between the atria that stays open after birth in about a quarter of adults. Usually symptom-free, it can let a clot pass to the brain and cause a stroke. Closing it by catheter is considered after an unexplained stroke.

Patient engagement

Taking an active part in your own care: understanding, deciding, acting. The higher the engagement, the better the adherence and the lower the risk of another event. Apps, support groups and patient education all strengthen it.

Patient motivation

The energy and will a person brings to following treatment and changing daily life. Realistic goals, regular feedback and family support all strengthen it. Good motivation improves outcomes over the long run.

Perceived Stress Scale

Short 10-question survey scoring how stressed you have felt over the past month. A high score is the cue to start relaxation methods or psychological support. Repeated over time, it shows whether those are working.

Percutaneous valvuloplasty

Percutaneous valvuloplasty widens a narrowed heart valve, usually the mitral or aortic, with a balloon introduced through a catheter, generally by way of the femoral artery. The chest is never opened, which is what percutaneous means. It is often offered to frail or elderly patients for whom open-heart surgery would carry too much risk. It relieves symptoms such as breathlessness and fatigue, improves quality of life and sometimes postpones a more invasive operation. The procedure is quick and recovery is usually shorter than after conventional surgery.

Pericarditis

Inflammation of the sac around the heart; the chest pain eases when sitting up, sometimes with fever. Treatment rests on anti-inflammatories and rest.

Peripheral artery disease (PAD)

Poor circulation in the legs from blocked arteries, causing pain on walking known as claudication. Stopping smoking and walking daily are the foundation of treatment.

Platelet aggregation

The process where platelets stick together to form the first plug of a clot. Antiplatelet drugs slow that mechanism down to prevent heart attack and stroke.

Platelet inhibitors

Another name for antiplatelet drugs; they act specifically on platelets. After a fresh stent two agents are often combined, which is called dual antiplatelet therapy.

Platelets

Small blood cells essential to clotting. Their number and function are measured before surgery and while on antiplatelet drugs.

Post-heart-attack checklist

A dashboard handed to the patient: medications, physical activity, appointments and warning signs. It keeps anything from being forgotten and catches trouble early.

Presyncope (near-faint)

Brief spell of dizziness with the room seeming to turn, without prolonged loss of consciousness. Fatigue, heat or a passing dip in blood pressure are the usual causes. Lying down with the legs raised and drinking a glass of water is usually enough.

Protamine

Intravenous antidote that cancels heparin's effect immediately in the event of bleeding. The dose is based on how much heparin was given.

Prothrombin time

Lab measurement that runs inverse to the INR for monitoring vitamin K antagonists. Too low exposes you to bleeding, too high to the risk of a clot.

Psychological support after a heart attack

A psychologist or psychiatrist helps with the fear and the depression that is common after a heart attack. This care improves sleep, adherence and quality of life. Cognitive behavioral therapy and mindfulness are the usual offers.

Pulmonary artery

Carries oxygen-poor blood from the right heart to the lungs. A pulmonary embolism blocks it partly or completely, and that is an emergency.

R

Recovery time after a heart attack

Recovery time after a heart attack depends on the severity of the event, general health and the quality of follow-up. As a rule, the gradual return to normal life begins 4 to 12 weeks after discharge, with medical supervision. You are not cured at three months, though: long-term health depends heavily on secondary prevention, meaning staying with the treatment, the exercise, the balanced diet and the absence of tobacco. The heart stays fragile, and the vigilance has to last a lifetime.

Red blood cells

Cells that carry oxygen using hemoglobin. Their number reflects how much oxygen the blood can move.

Remote patient monitoring

Remote patient monitoring lets a care team follow a patient's condition from a distance using digital tools. After a heart attack it makes it possible to send blood pressure, heart rate, weight and symptoms from home, without traveling for every check. It adds safety, improves adherence and allows a fast response when something is flagged. The patient stays in regular contact with their physician or nurse, which builds both trust and independence. Remote monitoring is now a core part of the cardiology care pathway.

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

Hormone chain regulating blood pressure and blood volume. ACE inhibitors, ARBs and aldosterone antagonists all target it.

Returning to normal life

Picking daily life back up, from errands to hobbies to going out, once your doctor agrees. Step by step: walking first, then light sport, then longer trips. Listening to your body and keeping the rest breaks makes the return stick.

Returning to work after a heart attack

Return is usually possible 6 to 12 weeks after the event, depending on severity and on the nature of the job. A back-to-work visit with occupational health adapts hours and tasks. A phased return smooths the transition.

Rheumatoid arthritis and heart risk

Inflammatory joint disease that raises the risk of a heart attack by about half. Chronic inflammation speeds up plaque forming in the arteries. Treating the arthritis early and watching the risk factors limits the danger.

Rhythm disorder

A cardiac rhythm disorder is a disturbance in the rate or the regularity of the heartbeat. It can show up as palpitations, dizziness, sudden fatigue or faintness. Some arrhythmias are benign, others serious, particularly when they raise the risk of stroke or cardiac arrest. Diagnosis rests on an electrocardiogram, and treatments range from medication to a pacemaker or an ablation. Appropriate care steadies the rhythm and prevents complications.

Risk of another heart attack

Probability of a second heart attack after the first event. It falls sharply when treatment is followed, smoking stops and exercise becomes regular. Regular checkups catch any early sign.

S

Saturated fat and heart risk

Fats coming mostly from cured meat, butter and full-fat cheese, which push LDL cholesterol up. Limiting them reduces plaque and spares the arteries.

Sedentary behavior

Time spent sitting or lying down outside of sleep, beyond about eight hours a day. It encourages weight gain, diabetes and high blood pressure. Standing up and walking five minutes every hour softens those effects.

Septal alcohol ablation

Injection of alcohol into a small heart artery to shrink the abnormally thickened septum. Blood moves through more easily and breathlessness eases. The hospital stay is short and recovery quick.

Septum

Wall separating the right and left sides of the heart. A hole in it lets blood cross from one side to the other and tires the heart. It is closed by catheter or surgery when needed.

SGLT2 inhibitors

Tablets that flush sugar out through the urine while protecting the heart and kidneys. They cut hospital admissions for heart failure.

Shear stress

The drag blood flow exerts on the endothelium. Turbulent flow encourages plaque; smooth, laminar flow protects the wall.

Silent myocardial ischemia

Reduced oxygen supply to the heart muscle with no pain felt at all. It usually surfaces on a stress ECG or a nuclear scan. Treating it with statins and revascularization prevents a heart attack.

Sinoatrial block

Slowing or interruption of the electrical impulse between the sinus node and the atrium. It can cause faintness, and a pacemaker is sometimes needed.

Sleep problems after a heart attack

After a heart attack, many people suffer insomnia or wake in the night, often because of anxiety, pain or the effects of beta blockers. A quiet environment, relaxation techniques and a consistent bedtime all help sleep quality return. Sleeping well supports recovery and takes stress off the heart. If the fatigue persists despite these efforts, raise it with your doctor so the treatment can be adjusted.

Smartwatches for the heart

Wrist devices that count steps, read heart rate and sometimes record a simplified ECG. They detect irregularities and encourage more movement. The data can be shared with your care team.

Stable chronic ischemia

Shortage of oxygen to the heart that appears predictably on exertion and has been stable for over three months. Managed with medication, or with angioplasty or bypass when symptoms are disabling.

Stenosis

Narrowing of a valve or an artery that impedes blood flow. It may call for dilation, a stent or valve replacement.

Stent

Small mesh tube left in the artery after angioplasty to keep it from closing again. Recent models are coated with a drug that prevents regrowth.

Strength training after a heart attack

Gentle work with resistance bands or light dumbbells to tone arms and legs. Two sessions a week are enough to build strength without overloading the heart. Keep breathing through the effort rather than holding your breath.

Stress echocardiogram

Ultrasound before and after exercise, or after a drug, to reveal an area of the heart that is short of blood. A radiation-free alternative to the classic stress test.

Stress management

A set of practices, from exercise to relaxation to organizing your time, that lower daily mental pressure. Less stress helps steady blood pressure and heart rhythm.

Stress management after a heart attack

A dedicated piece of rehabilitation built on breathing work, heart coherence and group sessions. It lowers the risk of another event and improves quality of life.

Stress tachycardia

Harmless speeding of the heart brought on by anxiety or emotion. It settles with slow breathing or a mild beta blocker.

Stroke

Sudden loss of blood flow or bleeding in the brain, causing paralysis, or trouble with speech or vision. The sooner 911 is called, the less damage remains. Prevention rests on controlling blood pressure, diabetes and smoking.

Stroke risk

Probability of having a stroke in the years ahead. It rises with high blood pressure, age, smoking, atrial fibrillation and diabetes. Correcting those factors and taking your medication lowers it.

Stroke volume

Amount of blood a ventricle ejects with each beat, on average 70 mL. Together with heart rate it sets the cardiac output. A fall in it can explain breathlessness.

Sugar and heart health

Excess sugar has a direct effect on cardiovascular health, even in people without diabetes. Added sugar in sweetened drinks, pastries and prepared meals encourages high blood pressure, obesity, chronic inflammation and disordered cholesterol, all of which raise the risk of a heart attack.

Support group after a heart attack

Meetings of patients led by a professional or a trained volunteer. Sharing what happened keeps people going with the right habits and breaks the isolation.

Supraventricular tachycardia

Fast rhythm above 150 bpm starting in the atria or the AV node. It causes palpitations and sometimes dizziness, but often responds to vagal maneuvers, medication or ablation.

Surgical anastomosis

Suture connecting two vessels or two segments of an organ to restore normal circulation, for example during a coronary bypass. It secures durable blood flow.

Swimming after a heart attack

Gentle sport where the water carries your body weight, sparing the joints. Swimming builds endurance and loosens the chest. Start only once your cardiologist agrees, and at a moderate pace.

Systole

Phase where the ventricles contract and push blood into the aorta and the pulmonary artery. It corresponds to the higher of the two blood pressure numbers.

T

Tailored physical activity

Exercise program your doctor sets according to your age, your capacity and any other conditions. It strengthens the heart, lowers blood pressure and improves blood sugar without putting you at risk. Sessions build up gradually and are supervised.

TAVR (transcatheter aortic valve replacement)

Technique that implants a new aortic valve through a catheter, without opening the chest; a risk score helps decide who is suitable. Frail patients in particular recover quickly.

Telehealth visit after a heart attack

Video appointment with your cardiologist to adjust medication, answer questions and follow rehabilitation. It spares a tiring trip and catches problems early. Prescriptions come by email or through a secure app.

Thrombosis

Formation of a clot inside a vessel. Depending on where it forms it causes a heart attack, a stroke or a deep vein thrombosis.

Thrombus

Mass of coagulated blood that makes up the clot; it may stay stuck or break free and become an embolism.

TIMI score

Prognostic index in acute coronary syndrome, estimating the risk of death or another heart attack.

Tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA)

Drug given urgently to dissolve the clot in a heart attack or an ischemic stroke. It turns a blood protein, plasminogen, into plasmin, which eats the fibrin holding the clot together. Its effect depends on how quickly it is injected.

Tomography (CT, PET-CT)

Tomography is a medical imaging technique producing very detailed slices through the inside of the body, used to diagnose many diseases including cardiovascular ones. Several types exist, the commonest being the CT scan and positron emission tomography combined with CT (PET-CT). CT shows the structure of the heart and arteries in detail, to detect plaque, calcification or a coronary narrowing. PET-CT combines anatomical and functional images to assess how viable the heart muscle is, locate damaged areas and guide decisions before an intervention.

Transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE)

Ultrasound probe passed down the esophagus, right up against the heart, giving very precise images. Used to study valves, detect a clot or guide certain procedures. Performed under light sedation as a day case.

Transient ischemic attack (TIA)

Very brief blockage of an artery in the brain that disturbs speech, vision or strength and clears within 24 hours. It is an alarm: untreated, the risk of a lasting stroke is high in the days that follow. A quick workup prevents the next one.

Triglycerides

Triglycerides are a type of fat found in the blood, coming mainly from food, from sugars and fats. They serve as an energy reserve for the body, but in excess they encourage cardiovascular disease. A high level often travels with other risk factors such as excess weight, diabetes, high blood pressure or disordered cholesterol. It contributes to thickening of the arteries and raises the risk of a heart attack or stroke.

Troponin

Troponin is a protein found in the cells of the heart muscle. When the heart is injured, as in a heart attack, it is released into the blood. Measuring it therefore detects cardiac damage quickly.

Type 2 diabetes and the heart

Insulin resistance that often travels with high blood pressure and high cholesterol. That trio drives atherosclerosis and heart failure. Losing weight and staying active cut these risks substantially.

V

Valve disease

Umbrella term covering both narrowing (stenosis) and leaking (regurgitation) of a valve. It produces a murmur, fatigue and sometimes fluid in the lungs.

Valve regurgitation

A valve that no longer closes properly, letting blood leak backward. A murmur on listening, plus fatigue and breathlessness; repair or replacement if it is severe.

Varicose veins

Dilated, twisting superficial veins in the legs with leaking valves. They cause heaviness and a risk of thrombosis; compression stockings or endovenous treatment are the options.

Vasoconstrictor

Substance or stimulus, such as adrenaline or cold, that tightens the vessels and raises blood pressure. Useful for lifting a pressure that has fallen too low, but worth watching, since it also increases the heart's workload.

Vasodilator

Medication such as nitrates and calcium channel blockers, or a stimulus such as heat, that widens the arteries, lowering blood pressure and relieving angina. It can cause a mild headache or facial flushing.

Vasopressor

Drug that deliberately narrows the vessels to lift a dangerously low blood pressure. Noradrenaline, adrenaline and vasopressin belong to this group; they are given as a continuous infusion in intensive care, for example in shock. They also increase the heart's workload, so circulation and the blood supply to the limbs are monitored throughout.

Veins

Veins are the blood vessels that carry oxygen-depleted blood back to the heart. Unlike arteries, which take blood from the heart out to the organs, veins handle the return trip so the blood can be reoxygenated in the lungs. They usually carry valves that stop blood from flowing backward, especially in the legs. Some veins, such as the deep leg veins and the venae cavae, are vital to overall circulation. Others, closer to the surface, are prone to problems such as varicose veins.

Vena cava

The vena cava is a large vessel that brings oxygen-poor blood back to the heart, specifically to the right atrium. There are two of them. The superior vena cava drains blood coming from the head, the neck and the arms. The inferior vena cava carries blood from the lower body. Both are essential to circulation, since they send blood on toward the lungs to be reoxygenated.

Ventricle

Lower chamber of the heart: the left one sends oxygenated blood into the aorta, the right one sends it to the lungs. A weakened ventricle leads to heart failure with fatigue and swelling.

Ventricular fibrillation

Chaotic contractions of the ventricles causing immediate cardiac arrest. It is treated with an external shock or by an implanted defibrillator.

Ventricular septal defect (VSD)

Congenital hole between the two ventricles that lets blood cross over. Small ones sometimes close on their own; large ones need surgery.

Ventricular tachycardia

Very fast rhythm originating in the ventricles, dangerous because it can turn into fibrillation. Possible symptoms are faintness, syncope and chest pain. An implantable defibrillator or medication prevents it from returning.

Vitamin K antagonists (warfarin)

Tablets that block the making of certain clotting factors. Their effect is checked with the INR blood test, target 2 to 3 most of the time. Watch for interactions with foods such as cabbage and broccoli, and with other drugs.

W

Walking and cardiovascular prevention

Thirty minutes of brisk walking five days a week is enough to lower blood pressure and bad cholesterol. It fits easily into a day and is the recommended way to start. Daily steps tracked on a phone make it easier to keep going.

White blood cells

Cells that defend the body against infection. A rise can signal inflammation or infection; a fall leaves you exposed. Some cancer treatments reduce their number, which is why they are monitored.

Y

Yoga and the heart

Practice combining gentle postures, slow breathing and meditation. It reduces stress, blood pressure and heart rate. Two 30-minute sessions a week are enough to feel the benefit.